The Greek Revival

After the Mycenaean Greek civilization collapsed around 1100 B.C.E., Greece endured a three-century-long Dark Age about which relatively little is known. But the year 776 B.C.E., which the winners of the Olympic games were first recorded, marks the beginning of a new period of Greek history, the Archaic Age (lasting to 500 B.C.E.), which brought a revival of culture, the economy, and political significance to Greece. During the relatively peaceful Dark Ages, populations had gradually increased to a point where Greece’s rocky and hilly soil could not produce enough basic agriculture products. One solution was to import additional foodstuffs. As a consequence, Greek commerce and production of trade goods expanded. In exchange for grain imported from Egypt and lands around the Black Sea, the Greeks traded olive oil, fine pottery, and silver. This explosion of commerce brought the Greeks into direct conflict with the existing Mediterranean trading power, the Phoenicians. The warlike Greeks constructed fleets of maneuverable iron-beaked fifty-oared ships called galleys, for which the unwieldy Phoenician two-decked warships were no match. The Greeks soon wrested control of important Mediterranean trade routes from the Phoenicians.

A second solution to the overpopulation problem was to seek new farmland elsewhere. In a wave of colonization lasting roughly from 750 to 550 B.C.E., Greek cities established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea, the Adriatic Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea in North Africa, France, and Spain. Because colonists wanted access to the sea for trade, they occupied only coastal sites. The Greek city of Corinth, for example, founded the great city of Syracuse in Sicily. The most extensive immigration was into southern Italy and western Sicily, which became known as Great Greece. Colonies had the same culture, social structure, and government as the cities that founded them. Although they maintained sentimental ties to their mother city, they were completely independent. Because the colonists were mostly male, they found wives, and slaves, among the local populations whose land they had also taken. A consequence of this intermingling was the spread of Greek culture, which became a common culture throughout the Mediterranean world and diffused into central Europe through the colony of Marseilles in southern France and into southern Russia via the Black Sea colonies.

The revival of Greek trade also brought Near East culture into Greece. From the Phoenicians the Greeks borrowed the alphabet, for they now had a need to keep records, From the Lydians (an empire in what is now Turkey), they picked up coinage, and the silver coins of Corinth and Athens became the standard currency throughout the Mediterranean world. The Greeks also assimilated artistic ideas. The simple geometric patterns of the Dark Ages gave way to eastern influences. Greek sculpture assumed a very Egyptian look and Greek pottery depicted many eastern designs, such as sphinxes, lions, and bulls. Almost always, however, the Greeks modified what they borrowed to suit their own preferences. They were the first people to put designs on both sides of coins. They changed some letters of the Phoenician alphabet from consonants into vowels. And Greek potters and sculptors soon used designs from their own myths and legends.

Greek pottery was a particularly important trade good. Some pots, such as large urns used as grave monuments, were made for ceremonial purposes, but most were utilitarian. Four-foot-tall jars called amphorae stored wine, olives, and other edibles. Many kinds of bowls, plates, and cups served as tableware. Greek potters were soon the acknowledged masters of pottery making. All Greek cities produced pottery for local use, but the pottery of important trading cities was valued throughout the ancient world. During the sixth century B.C.E., Corinth was famous for pottery featuring black figures on a lighter background, but by 500 B.C.E. Athenian pottery with red figures on a black background had become the preferred style.

During the Archaic Age the Greeks also began to build stone temples as centers of civic pride as well as to honor their primary gods. Temples usually were constructed in simple rectangular form, with a tile roof supported by external rows of stone columns, a style that also eventually spread throughout the Mediterranean.

Summary

Start of the Archaic Age (776 B.C.E.): Marked by the first recorded Olympic games, this period signifies a revival in Greek culture, economy, and political significance.
Challenges and Solutions:
- Overpopulation and Agriculture: With increasing populations and insufficient agricultural production, the Greeks needed solutions.
- Trade Expansion: To import food, Greeks expanded their trade, exchanging olive oil, pottery, and silver for grain from Egypt and the Black Sea region.
- Conflict with Phoenicians: Greek commerce expansion led to conflict with the Phoenicians, leading to Greek dominance in Mediterranean trade due to superior naval capabilities.
Colonization (750-550 B.C.E.):
- New Lands for Agriculture: Greeks established colonies along the coasts of the Black Sea, Adriatic Sea, and Mediterranean, including North Africa, France, and Spain.
- Independent Colonies: These colonies shared cultural and social structures with their founding cities but were politically independent.
- Cultural Diffusion: Intermarriage with local populations led to the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean and into central Europe.
Cultural Exchange and Influence:
- Adoption of Near Eastern Elements: Greeks borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians, coinage from the Lydians, and incorporated artistic influences from the East.
- Modifications and Innovations: Greeks adapted foreign elements to their own preferences, such as modifying the Phoenician alphabet and creating unique pottery designs.
Greek Pottery:
- Importance as Trade Goods: Greek pottery, especially from trading cities like Corinth and Athens, was highly valued.
- Styles and Types: Various styles evolved, such as Corinthian black-figure pottery and Athenian red-figure pottery.
Architecture - Stone Temples:
- Construction of Temples: During this period, Greeks began building stone temples as civic and religious centers.
- Architectural Style: These temples, characterized by rectangular shapes and stone columns, influenced Mediterranean architectural styles.

知识溯源

the Mycenaean civilization

迈锡尼文明（Mycenaean civilization）是古希腊历史上的一个重要文明阶段，大约存在于公元前16世纪到公元前11世纪之间。这个文明以其独特的语言、文化和政治体制而闻名，被认为是古希腊历史上的一个关键时期，为后来的古希腊文明奠定了基础。

迈锡尼文明在公元前12世纪末期和公元前11世纪初期经历了一系列的动荡和毁灭事件，其中包括可能的地震、火山喷发、外部入侵等。这个时期也与古希腊史诗《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》中的特洛伊战争和奥德赛故事有关。文明的结束导致了希腊的一段黑暗时期，直到古典希腊文明的兴起。

总的来说，迈锡尼文明是古希腊历史上的一个重要时期，它的政治、文化和语言影响了后来的古希腊文明，并为古典希腊时代的崛起奠定了基础。

the Phoenicians

费尼基人（Phoenicians）是古代地中海地区的一个重要文明和民族。他们生活在今天黎巴嫩、叙利亚、以色列和巴勒斯坦地区，主要活跃于公元前约1550年至公元前300年之间。

费尼基人和希腊人之间的冲突主要发生在公元前8世纪到公元前4世纪期间。

希腊殖民地扩张（公元前8世纪 - 公元前6世纪）：在公元前8世纪初期，希腊城邦开始向东方和西方扩张，建立了许多殖民地，包括在费尼基人的传统势力范围内的地区，如西西里岛、北非和西班牙。这导致了希腊人和费尼基人之间在殖民地地区的竞争。
基兹克战争（公元前5世纪 - 公元前4世纪）：基兹克战争是希腊城邦雅典和费尼基城邦基兹克之间的一系列冲突。这些战争涉及了地中海东部的领土争夺，包括基兹克和附近的小亚细亚地区。这些冲突在公元前5世纪末和公元前4世纪初爆发，雅典最终失败，这对费尼基人来说是一次胜利。
基兹克战争后续事件：虽然雅典在基兹克战争中失败，但随后亚历山大大帝（Alexander the Great）的征服活动改变了地中海地区的格局。亚历山大的征服导致了希腊文化的传播，而希腊帝国的建立也削弱了费尼基城邦的地位。
罗马对卡多加的征服（公元前146年）：卡多加是费尼基最强大的城邦之一，它的征服标志着罗马对地中海地区的统一统治。这一事件结束了费尼基人在地中海政治舞台上的独立地位，费尼基成为了罗马的一部分。

总的来说，费尼基人和希腊人之间的冲突主要涉及领土争夺、殖民地竞争和政治权力的斗争。